Last updated on April 17th, 2025 at 08:25 am
Therapists identify covert narcissists by relying on specialized skills and evidence-based methods. Covert narcissism often hides behind subtle behaviors, making it less visible compared to overt narcissism. Research highlights this complexity.
For example, the HSP Scale shows a moderate correlation (0.50) between high sensitivity traits and vulnerable narcissism. This correlation decreases to 0.30 when accounting for neuroticism, emphasizing the role of other psychological factors.
These findings underscore the importance of clinical expertise in distinguishing covert narcissism from overlapping conditions like anxiety or depression. Accurate identification demands a careful assessment of nuanced interpersonal dynamics and emotional patterns.
Key Takeaways
Covert narcissism is hard to spot and often hidden by actions like feeling sorry for themselves or acting passive-aggressive.
Therapists need to carefully watch how clients talk to find covert narcissistic traits.
Using special tools, like the Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale, helps therapists identify covert narcissism better.
Covert narcissists often act like victims, which can confuse therapists and make it harder to diagnose.
Therapists should observe how clients interact with others over time to find hidden narcissistic behaviors.
Learning more and getting extra training helps therapists notice and handle covert narcissism.
Why Therapists Identify Covert Narcissists Is Challenging
Subtlety Of Covert Narcissistic Behaviors
Passive-Aggressive Communication Styles
Covert narcissists often rely on passive-aggressive communication to express their needs or frustrations. Instead of openly addressing issues, they may use sarcasm, backhanded compliments, or subtle digs to undermine others.
For example, a client might say, “I guess you’re too busy to care about my problems,” masking their resentment with a tone of self-pity. These behaviors can appear harmless at first glance, making it difficult for therapists to recognize the underlying narcissistic tendencies.
Unlike overt narcissists, who may dominate conversations with grandiose claims, covert narcissists often adopt a more subdued approach. This subtlety requires therapists to pay close attention to patterns in communication over time.
Research highlights that covert narcissism employs insidious tactics, such as undermining confidence and controlling behavior, which can leave victims feeling invalidated and powerless.
Self-Pity And Victimhood Narratives
A hallmark of covert narcissism is the tendency to frame oneself as a perpetual victim. This behavior often evokes sympathy, diverting attention from manipulative or narcissistic tendencies.
For instance, a client might recount a series of personal hardships, emphasizing how others have wronged them while downplaying their own role in conflicts. This narrative can make therapists hesitant to explore deeper issues, as they may feel compelled to provide reassurance rather than challenge the client’s perspective.
Therapists identify covert narcissists by examining these victimhood narratives critically. Studies show that covert narcissists often present themselves as likable and charming, which can mislead even experienced clinicians. Their ability to manipulate emotions and distort reality further complicates the diagnostic process.
Distinguishing From Other Conditions And Presentations
Covert Versus Overt Narcissistic Manifestations
Covert narcissism differs significantly from its overt counterpart, yet the two share core traits like entitlement and a lack of empathy. Overt narcissists display these traits openly, often seeking admiration through grandiose behavior.
In contrast, covert narcissists mask their entitlement with humility or self-deprecation. For example, they might say, “I don’t need recognition, but it would be nice if people appreciated me more,” subtly seeking validation without appearing boastful.
This distinction requires therapists to look beyond surface-level behaviors. Experienced clinicians often track interpersonal patterns over time, noting how covert narcissists alternate between feigned humility and subtle demands for attention. These patterns, though less obvious than overt narcissism, provide critical clues for accurate identification.
Overlap With Depression And Anxiety Symptoms
Covert narcissism often overlaps with symptoms of depression and anxiety, further complicating diagnosis. Clients may report feelings of inadequacy, hypersensitivity to criticism, or chronic self-doubt—symptoms commonly associated with mood disorders.
However, these feelings often stem from a fragile sense of self-worth rather than clinical depression or anxiety.
Therapists must differentiate between these conditions by exploring the underlying motivations behind the symptoms. For instance, a client with covert narcissism might express sadness over being overlooked, but their distress often centers on unmet expectations of special treatment.
Studies emphasize that covert narcissists lack insight into their behaviors, making it essential for therapists to use structured diagnostic tools alongside clinical interviews.
How Therapists Identify Covert Narcissists Through Assessment Tools
Clinical Interviews And Diagnostic Tools
Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale (MCNS)
Therapists identify covert narcissists by using specialized diagnostic tools like the Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale (MCNS). This scale evaluates traits such as hypersensitivity, self-absorption, and chronic feelings of inadequacy.
Unlike overt narcissism, which is characterized by grandiosity, covert narcissism manifests through subtle emotional patterns. The MCNS helps therapists pinpoint these traits by focusing on how individuals perceive themselves and interact with others.
For example, a client scoring high on the MCNS might exhibit heightened sensitivity to criticism while simultaneously seeking validation through indirect means.
This tool provides therapists with a structured framework to differentiate covert narcissism from other conditions, such as social anxiety or depression. By combining MCNS results with clinical observations, therapists can form a more accurate diagnosis.
Structured Diagnostic Interviews Versus Observational Techniques
Structured diagnostic interviews offer therapists a systematic approach to identifying covert narcissism. These interviews include standardized questions designed to uncover narcissistic traits without relying solely on self-reported data.
For instance, therapists might ask clients about their interpersonal relationships, focusing on recurring patterns of conflict or emotional withdrawal.
Observational techniques complement these interviews by allowing therapists to assess behaviors in real-time. Covert narcissists often mask their entitlement and lack of empathy with feigned humility or self-pity. Therapists observe these subtle cues during sessions, noting inconsistencies between verbal statements and nonverbal behaviors.
Combining structured interviews with observational insights enhances diagnostic accuracy, especially when dealing with clients who actively conceal their narcissistic tendencies.
Detecting Manipulative And Masking Strategies
Identifying Feigned Empathy And Humility
Covert narcissists frequently use feigned empathy and humility to manipulate others. They may present themselves as caring and selfless, but their actions often reveal a hidden agenda.
For example, a client might express concern for a friend’s struggles while subtly shifting the focus to their own hardships. This behavior creates an illusion of empathy while reinforcing their victimhood narrative.
Therapists identify these tactics by analyzing the consistency of a client’s emotional responses. Genuine empathy involves active listening and a focus on others, whereas feigned empathy often redirects attention back to the individual.
Recognizing Gaslighting And Emotional Manipulation
Gaslighting and emotional manipulation are common strategies used by covert narcissists to maintain control in relationships. They may distort reality by denying past statements or actions, leaving others confused and doubting their perceptions.
For instance, a client might claim, “I never said that,” despite clear evidence to the contrary. This tactic shifts blame and undermines the confidence of those around them.
Therapists identify covert narcissists by examining how they interact with others and respond to challenges. Patterns of gaslighting often emerge during discussions about interpersonal conflicts.
By documenting these behaviors and exploring their underlying motivations, therapists can uncover the manipulative strategies that define covert narcissism.
Note: Research highlights the reliability of tools like the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS) in identifying covert narcissism. The table below summarizes key findings:
Evidence Type | Description |
|---|---|
Assessment Tool | Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS) |
Reliability | Good reliability in measuring covert narcissism |
Context | Validated in the context of Chinese college students |
Study Findings | The Chinese version of the HSNS scale has good validity and reliability for screening covert narcissism. |
Challenges Therapists Face When Identifying Covert Narcissists
Limited Observable Behaviors In Therapy Sessions
Controlled Self-Presentation By Clients
Covert narcissists often excel at controlling how they present themselves during therapy sessions. They carefully curate their words and actions to appear likable, humble, or even vulnerable. This self-presentation can mislead therapists into perceiving them as cooperative or emotionally open.
For example, a client might share a story of personal hardship, emphasizing their resilience while subtly seeking validation. These behaviors make it difficult to uncover deeper narcissistic traits, as the client avoids revealing their true motivations or entitlement.
Therapists must remain vigilant and look for inconsistencies between a client’s verbal expressions and nonverbal cues. Subtle signs, such as a lack of genuine emotional engagement or a tendency to redirect conversations back to themselves, can provide critical insights. However, these indicators often emerge gradually, requiring therapists to build trust and observe patterns over multiple sessions.
Avoidance Of Vulnerability And Emotional Depth
Covert narcissists typically avoid exploring their vulnerabilities or emotional depth in therapy. They may deflect questions about their feelings or shift the focus to external factors, such as the perceived shortcomings of others.
This avoidance stems from their fragile self-esteem and fear of exposing their insecurities. For instance, a client might respond to a question about their role in a conflict by emphasizing how others have mistreated them, rather than reflecting on their own behavior.
This reluctance to engage deeply poses a significant challenge for therapists. Without access to the client’s authentic emotions, it becomes harder to identify the underlying narcissistic traits. Therapists must use gentle yet persistent questioning techniques to encourage self-reflection while maintaining a supportive therapeutic environment.
Risks Of Misdiagnosis And Clinical Blindspots
Confusion With Other Personality Disorders
The subtlety of covert narcissism often leads to confusion with other personality disorders, particularly Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). Both conditions share traits such as emotional instability, hypersensitivity to criticism, and difficulties in relationships.
However, the motivations behind these behaviors differ. While individuals with BPD often seek connection and fear abandonment, covert narcissists prioritize maintaining their self-image and gaining validation.
Gender biases in diagnostic criteria further complicate this distinction. Research indicates that covert narcissism is more prevalent among women, yet it is frequently misdiagnosed as BPD. This misdiagnosis can result in ineffective treatment plans that fail to address the client’s narcissistic traits. Therapists must use comprehensive assessment tools and consider the client’s interpersonal patterns to differentiate between these conditions accurately.
The Role Of Confirmation Bias In Clinical Assessment
Confirmation bias can also hinder the accurate identification of covert narcissism. Therapists may unconsciously focus on information that aligns with their initial impressions of the client, overlooking contradictory evidence.
For example, a therapist who perceives a client as empathetic and selfless might dismiss subtle signs of entitlement or manipulation. This bias can prevent therapists from recognizing the full scope of the client’s narcissistic tendencies.
To mitigate this risk, therapists should adopt a structured and evidence-based approach to assessment. Peer consultation and supervision can provide valuable external perspectives, helping therapists identify blind spots and challenge their assumptions.
By remaining open to new information and continuously refining their diagnostic skills, therapists can improve their ability to identify covert narcissists effectively.
Training Therapists To Identify Covert Narcissists Effectively
Current Limitations In Professional Training Programs
Gaps In Graduate Education Regarding Personality Disorder Subtypes
Graduate programs often fail to provide adequate training on identifying covert narcissism. While overt narcissism is widely discussed, its covert counterpart remains underexplored. This gap leaves therapists ill-equipped to recognize the subtle traits of covert narcissists, such as hypersensitivity and self-pity.
Key challenges include the lack of specialized coursework on personality disorder subtypes. Many programs focus on broad diagnostic criteria but neglect the nuanced presentations of covert narcissism.
For example, covert narcissists may present as modest or self-effacing, which can obscure their underlying entitlement and manipulation. Without targeted education, therapists may misinterpret these behaviors as signs of anxiety or depression.
The Need For Enhanced Specialized Training
Specialized training is essential for equipping therapists to identify covert narcissists effectively. Current programs often emphasize general diagnostic skills but overlook the unique challenges posed by covert narcissism.
Therapists need advanced tools and techniques to detect subtle patterns, such as passive-aggressive communication and victimhood narratives.
Workshops and certifications focusing on covert narcissism could bridge this gap. These programs should include case studies, role-playing exercises, and discussions on the latest research. By enhancing their understanding of covert narcissistic traits, therapists can improve their diagnostic accuracy and treatment outcomes.
Importance Of Continued Education And Training
Workshops On Personality Disorders
Workshops offer a practical way for therapists to deepen their understanding of covert narcissism. These sessions often include interactive components, such as group discussions and role-playing, which help participants apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios.
For instance, a workshop might explore how covert narcissists use feigned humility to manipulate others, providing therapists with strategies to identify these behaviors.
Recent studies highlight the effectiveness of workshops in improving diagnostic skills. A 2020 study found that therapists who attended personality disorder workshops demonstrated a 25% increase in diagnostic accuracy. These findings underscore the value of continued education in enhancing clinical expertise.
Peer Supervision And Case Studies
Peer supervision and case studies play a crucial role in ongoing professional development. Discussing cases with colleagues allows therapists to gain new perspectives and identify potential blind spots.
For example, a therapist might share a challenging case involving a client who exhibits covert narcissistic traits, such as hypersensitivity and avoidance of vulnerability. Feedback from peers can help uncover patterns that may have been overlooked.
Case studies also provide valuable learning opportunities. Analyzing real-world examples helps therapists understand the complexities of covert narcissism, from its subtle manifestations to its impact on relationships.
Therapeutic Relationship As A Diagnostic Window
Manipulation Tactics During Clinical Evaluation
How Covert Narcissists Present As Sympathetic Clients
Covert narcissists often present themselves as sympathetic and misunderstood individuals during therapy sessions. They may share stories of personal hardship, emphasizing how others have wronged them while portraying themselves as resilient survivors.
This approach can evoke empathy from therapists, making it challenging to identify underlying narcissistic traits. For instance, a client might describe a strained relationship with a colleague, focusing on their own efforts to maintain peace while subtly implying the other person’s incompetence or hostility.
The therapeutic relationship often reveals emotional responses that can indicate covert narcissism. Therapists may experience countertransference, such as feeling pressured to provide special treatment or doubting their clinical judgment.
The Strategic Shifting Of Blame And Victimhood Narratives
Covert narcissists frequently use blame-shifting tactics to avoid accountability. During clinical evaluations, they redirect responsibility for conflicts onto others, framing themselves as victims of unfair treatment.
For example, a client might recount a disagreement with a partner, emphasizing their partner’s flaws while downplaying their own role in the conflict. This narrative not only deflects blame but also reinforces their victimhood, making it harder for therapists to uncover the full picture.
Research highlights several manipulation tactics employed by covert narcissists during therapy:
Manipulation Tactic | Description |
|---|---|
Agenda-driven therapy | Narcissists often enter therapy to further their own agendas, such as blaming others. |
Deceptive charm | They may use charm to manipulate therapists, leading to potential misdiagnosis. |
Blame shifting | They redirect blame to others, avoiding accountability for their actions. |
False hope | They create an illusion of change to manipulate loved ones and maintain control. |
When Therapists Become Unwitting Enablers
The Dangers Of Reinforcing Pathological Patterns
Therapists may inadvertently reinforce covert narcissistic patterns by responding to manipulation without recognizing it. Endless manipulation can strip away a therapist’s objectivity, overshadowing professional boundaries.
For example, a therapist who consistently reassures a client without challenging their victimhood narrative may unknowingly validate the client’s distorted perceptions. This dynamic can create chaos within the therapeutic process, leaving the therapist feeling conflicted and self-critical.
Intermittent reinforcement further complicates this issue. Covert narcissists may alternate between cooperative behavior and subtle resistance, creating an unpredictable cycle.
This pattern mirrors psychological abuse dynamics, where sporadic rewards, such as compliments or expressions of gratitude, are mixed with manipulative behaviors. Therapists must recognize these cycles to avoid becoming enablers of the client’s pathological tendencies.
Signs That Therapeutic Objectives Are Being Subverted
Therapists should monitor for signs that therapeutic objectives are being undermined. Covert narcissists may subtly shift the focus of sessions to maintain control or avoid addressing deeper issues.
For instance, a client might steer conversations toward external conflicts rather than exploring their own emotions or behaviors. This deflection can stall progress and prevent meaningful self-reflection.
Other warning signs include a lack of genuine emotional engagement and resistance to feedback. A client who consistently redirects discussions or dismisses constructive input may be attempting to subvert the therapeutic process.
Therapists identify covert narcissists by observing these patterns and addressing them directly, ensuring that therapy remains focused on achieving authentic growth and change.
Using Countertransference To Identify Covert Narcissists
Recognizing Emotional Reactions As Clinical Data
Common Countertransference Responses To Covert Narcissism
Therapists often experience strong emotional reactions when working with covert narcissists. These responses, known as countertransference, can serve as valuable diagnostic tools. Covert narcissists may evoke feelings of frustration, confusion, or even guilt in their therapists.
For example, a therapist might feel an inexplicable urge to overcompensate for a client’s perceived hardships. This reaction often stems from the client’s subtle manipulation or victimhood narrative.
Research by Gabbard (2014) highlights that therapists frequently feel drained or inadequate after sessions with covert narcissists. These clients may project their insecurities onto the therapist, creating a dynamic where the therapist feels compelled to “fix” them.
Using Self-Awareness To Enhance Diagnostic Accuracy
Self-awareness is a critical skill for therapists working with covert narcissists. By reflecting on their emotional responses, therapists can identify potential blind spots in their clinical judgment.
For instance, a therapist who feels overly sympathetic toward a client might question whether the client’s narrative is masking deeper issues, such as entitlement or manipulation.
Practical strategies for enhancing self-awareness include journaling after sessions, seeking peer feedback, and engaging in personal therapy. Studies suggest that therapists who practice mindfulness are better equipped to manage countertransference.
A 2021 study published in Psychotherapy Research found that mindfulness training improved therapists’ ability to recognize and regulate their emotional responses, leading to more accurate diagnoses.
Tip: Therapists should ask themselves, “Why am I feeling this way?” Emotional reactions often hold clues to the client’s hidden dynamics.
The Value Of Consultation And Supervision
How Peer Consultation Reveals Narcissistic Dynamics
Peer consultation provides an external perspective that can uncover covert narcissistic traits. Discussing challenging cases with colleagues allows therapists to identify patterns they may have missed.
For example, a therapist might describe a client who frequently shifts blame onto others while presenting as humble. A peer might point out that this behavior aligns with covert narcissism, prompting the therapist to reassess their approach.
Case studies support the importance of peer consultation. A 2018 review in Clinical Psychology Review found that therapists who participated in regular peer consultations reported higher diagnostic accuracy. These discussions often reveal subtle dynamics, such as the client’s tendency to manipulate through feigned empathy or self-pity.
Breaking Through Clinical Blind Spots With External Perspective
Supervision plays a crucial role in addressing clinical blind spots. Supervisors can provide guidance on how to navigate the complexities of covert narcissism. For instance, they might suggest specific questions to explore the client’s interpersonal patterns or recommend tools like the Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale (MCNS).
External perspectives also help therapists challenge their assumptions. A supervisor might notice that a therapist is overly focused on the client’s reported hardships, neglecting to explore their role in conflicts. This feedback encourages a more balanced assessment, reducing the risk of misdiagnosis.
Note: Regular supervision not only enhances diagnostic skills but also supports therapists’ emotional well-being, preventing burnout when working with challenging clients.
Expert Success In Identifying Covert Narcissists
Identifying Red Flags Despite Sophisticated Disguise
Subtle Behavioral Indicators That Experienced Clinicians Notice
Experienced clinicians often detect covert narcissism by observing subtle behavioral patterns that may go unnoticed by less seasoned professionals. These individuals frequently exhibit hypersensitivity to perceived slights, even when no offense was intended.
For example, a client might react defensively to neutral feedback, interpreting it as criticism. This hypersensitivity often coexists with a tendency to downplay their achievements while subtly fishing for validation, such as saying, “I’m not as talented as others, but I try my best.”
Another key indicator involves inconsistencies between verbal and nonverbal communication. A covert narcissist might express humility verbally while displaying body language that suggests discomfort or frustration when not receiving attention.
Therapists identify these discrepancies by closely monitoring how clients respond to praise, criticism, or neutral interactions over time. These subtle cues, though challenging to spot initially, often reveal deeper narcissistic tendencies.
The Importance Of Tracking Interpersonal Patterns Over Time
Tracking interpersonal patterns across multiple sessions provides critical insights into covert narcissism. Unlike overt narcissists, who openly seek admiration, covert narcissists often alternate between self-deprecation and subtle demands for recognition.
For instance, a client might initially present as modest and cooperative but later exhibit passive-aggressive behaviors when their needs are not met.
Studies measuring the effectiveness of clinical evaluations highlight the importance of tracking these patterns. The table below summarizes findings from recent research:
Variable | Result | Statistical Significance |
|---|---|---|
Cognitive Empathy | Inverse relationship with covert narcissism | ρ=–0.23; p < 0.001 |
Gender Differences | Covert narcissism greater in students after one semester | p = 0.01 |
Variance Explained | p < 0.001 | |
Effect Size | Medium to large | N/A |
These findings emphasize the need for therapists to document and analyze interpersonal dynamics systematically. Patterns such as recurring victimhood narratives or subtle blame-shifting often emerge over time, providing valuable diagnostic clues.
Research On Diagnostic Accuracy Among Professionals
Current Studies On Clinical Recognition Rates
Recent studies have explored the accuracy of clinical recognition rates for covert narcissism. One study found that therapists with over ten years of experience demonstrated significantly higher diagnostic accuracy compared to those with less experience.
This discrepancy highlights the importance of expertise in identifying covert narcissistic traits, which often remain hidden behind a façade of humility or vulnerability.
Another study revealed that structured diagnostic tools, such as the Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale (MCNS), improved recognition rates by 20%. These tools help clinicians identify traits like hypersensitivity and entitlement, which are often masked by self-effacing behaviors. By combining these tools with observational techniques, therapists can achieve more reliable diagnoses.
Factors That Enhance Diagnostic Precision In Experienced Clinicians
Several factors contribute to the diagnostic precision of experienced clinicians. First, seasoned therapists develop a heightened ability to detect subtle emotional cues, such as microexpressions or shifts in tone.
These cues often betray the covert narcissist’s underlying need for validation or control. Second, experienced clinicians rely on evidence-based frameworks to differentiate covert narcissism from conditions like depression or anxiety.
Peer consultation also plays a crucial role. Discussing challenging cases with colleagues allows therapists to identify patterns they might have overlooked.
For example, a peer might point out that a client’s recurring victimhood narrative aligns with covert narcissistic tendencies. This collaborative approach enhances diagnostic accuracy and ensures that therapists remain objective in their assessments.
Conclusion
Therapists identify covert narcissists by employing specialized skills and evidence-based tools. The subtle nature of covert narcissism, combined with its overlap with conditions like anxiety or depression, makes accurate diagnosis a complex process.
Continued education and research remain essential for improving clinical precision. A balanced approach is equally important, as covert narcissists often present as multifaceted individuals with unique challenges.
Therapists must navigate these complexities with care, ensuring that their methods promote both understanding and effective intervention.
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Frequently Asked Questions
What makes covert narcissism different from overt narcissism?
Covert narcissism manifests through subtle behaviors like self-pity and hypersensitivity, while overt narcissism involves grandiosity and attention-seeking. Both share traits like entitlement and lack of empathy. Research (Cain et al., 2008) highlights covert narcissists’ tendency to mask their needs with humility, making them harder to identify.
Can covert narcissism be mistaken for depression or anxiety?
Yes, covert narcissism often overlaps with symptoms of depression and anxiety, such as low self-esteem and hypersensitivity. However, covert narcissists’ distress often stems from unmet expectations of special treatment, unlike clinical depression. Structured tools like the MCNS help differentiate these conditions.
Are covert narcissists aware of their behavior?
Most covert narcissists lack insight into their manipulative tendencies. They often view themselves as victims, justifying their actions. Studies (Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010) suggest that this lack of self-awareness complicates therapy, as clients may resist exploring their role in conflicts.
How can therapists avoid misdiagnosing covert narcissism?
Therapists can avoid misdiagnosis by using structured diagnostic tools, observing interpersonal patterns, and seeking peer consultation. Misdiagnosis often occurs when covert narcissism is confused with Borderline Personality Disorder or mood disorders. Comprehensive assessments reduce this risk.
Why do covert narcissists avoid vulnerability in therapy?
Covert narcissists fear exposing their insecurities, which threatens their fragile self-esteem. They often deflect questions about their emotions or shift blame onto others. Therapists must use gentle, persistent questioning to encourage self-reflection without triggering defensiveness.
Can covert narcissists benefit from therapy?
Yes, but progress depends on their willingness to engage honestly. Therapy can help them develop self-awareness and healthier interpersonal patterns. However, therapists must remain vigilant to manipulation tactics that may hinder progress.
What are common misconceptions about covert narcissism?
Many believe covert narcissists are shy or introverted. While they may appear reserved, their behaviors often mask entitlement and a need for validation. Another misconception is that they lack narcissistic traits entirely, which can delay accurate diagnosis and treatment.
How can therapists manage countertransference with covert narcissists?
Therapists should reflect on their emotional reactions, such as frustration or guilt, as these often reveal covert narcissistic dynamics. Peer supervision and mindfulness practices help therapists maintain objectivity and avoid enabling manipulative behaviors.